Introduction

This article documents everything a music recordist needs to know about the technical aspects of microphones. To begin, here are a few useful facts ...

• Condensor microphones have a wide frequency response and are the preferred choice for recoding vocals and acoustic instruments.
• Condenser microphones are not often used on stage. Because of their delicate sensitivity they are prone to feedback and handling noise.
• Dynamic microphones are a good choice for live vocals, and recording drums and guitar amps in the studio.
• Recording studios need a wide range of microphones models and types.
• If you can only afford one microphone for recording it should be a condenser with switchable polar patterns, because these are the most versatile.
• Omni directional microphones produce the most natural sound but because they pick up sound from all around they need to be used in acoustically controlled or treated spaces.
• If you are recording vocals you will almost always need a suspension mount, boom microphone stand, a pop shield and a music stand.
• You should audition a microphone before buying.
• The microphone pre-amp is an important part of a microphones sound. A given microphone will not always sound the same between different pre-amps.
• Do not assume that large capsule condensor microphones are more accurate than other designs, some are not. We like them because they flatter the sound.
• If a microphone does not have a canon / XLR connector, it is almost certainly not a professional model and may suffer from a loss of treble and interference if the connecting cable is long.

Basic design principals

A soundwave entering a microphone causes a diaphragm to vibrate. Put simply, as the diaphragm moves backwards (when compression hits it) and forward (when rarefaction hits it) it causes a magnet to move inside a coil of wire. In accordance with Faraday's principles of electromagnetism, this induces (creates) an electrical signal in the coil which rises and falls in pressure (voltage) according to the movement of the magnet. Thus a pattern of changing electrical pressure is created which tracks exactly the pattern of changing air pressure energy entering the microphone.

In order to capture the detail of the air pressure soundwave, the diaphragm moves microscopically. Thus the electrical pressure soundwave the microphone produces is very low in amplitude. This signal must be sent to a microphone pre-amplifier (perhaps in a mixing desk), via a balanced lead (which protects it on its journey), where it will be boosted to so called "line level".

Transducers

A transducer is a device for converting one form of physical energy into electricity or vice versa. A microphone converts sound energy (vibrations in the air) into electrical energy. Although occurring together the transducing process in a microphone combines two stages:

• 1st Stage: Sound waves create changes in air pressure which cause a lightweight diaphragm to vibrate.
• 2nd Stage: The mechanical motion of the diaphragm is used to generate an alternating voltage.

Capsule

In a microphone the transducer is built into a capsule incorporating a diaphragm which is protected from the user by a metal grille. The capsule is normally mounted onto the microphone body which contains the necessary electronics, transformers and connectors.

Sold state and valve electronics

Before transistors, microphones used valves as part of their electronics. Valve microphones tend too have a narrower frequency range and are less transparent (their frequency curves are not flat) than modern solid state designs, but are favoured because of the character and warmth (pleasant harmonic distortion) they can add to a sound.

Axis

A line drawn through and at 90 degrees to the capsule is called the axis. The microphone will be most sensitive to sound arriving along this line. Sound arriving from any other direction is said to be off-axis.

Proximity effect

This occurs with microphones in which the capsule employs a pressure gradient design (cardioid and figure of eight). Essentially low frequencies are accentuated when the sound source is very close to the microphone (most noticeable within just a few inches).

Handling noise

This is the mechanical transfer of vibration from the body to the capsule.

Popping noise

This is a low frequency boom caused by excessive air pressure (or wind) usually caused by a singer pronouncing Ps and Bs.

Directionality (polar pattern)

Different microphones respond differently to sounds arriving from different directions. Some pick up sound equally well from all around. Some are designed to pick up sound approaching from one direction whilst others pick up sound from the front and rear but not the sides. Many modern studio microphones combine both pressure-operated (PO) and pressure-gradient (PG) transducer design to produce varying patterns of directivity between omni-directional and figure of eight.

These five most common directional characteristics are known as:

• Omni-directional (all around)
• Figure of eight (bi-directional) front and rear
• Cardioid (unidirectional) heart shaped
• Super cardioid
• Hyper cardioid

A given microphones pattern of directivity (called its polar pattern) is defined by the particular transducer design implemented in its capsule.

A polar diagram (or polar pattern) is a form of two-dimensional contour map showing the microphones output (usually in dB) at different angles of incident of a sound wave. The greater the plot from the centre the greater the output of the microphone at that angle.

It should be stated that diagrammatic representation of a given capsules polar pattern is intended to show its average response. Exact patterns will be frequency dependent. In general most off-axis attenuation occurs with higher frequencies where wavelength is shorter and the masking effect of the body is therefore greatest.

Omni directional

A microphone capsule employing a pressure operation design leaves the diaphragm open to the air on one side and enclosed on the other. As the air pressure changes in response to sound waves the diaphragm moves inwards and outwards.

Because such a microphone responds to changes in air pressure it should be equally sensitive to sounds coming from any direction. Its response characteristic (polar pattern) is circular and called omni-directional. In practice however, the physical body of the microphone itself produces a masking effect which tends to effect its sensitivity to off-axis high frequency sound.

Such a microphone will pick up all ambient (direct plus reverberant) sound. They are arguably the most natural sounding because they reproduce off-axis sound faithfully. They do not suffer from the proximity effect in the way that cardioid and figure of eight designs do. They are most immune to handling and wind noise. Also they have a greater capacity for handling high SPL's (Sound Pressure Levels).

Figure of eight

A microphone capsule employing a pressure gradient design leaves the diaphragm open to the air on both sides. The force acting on it can be expressed in terms of the pressure difference or gradient at the two faces. Here the microphone is most sensitive at two points along the axis, at 0 and 180 degrees and least sensitive at 90 degrees.

A microphone employing this design will produce the characteristic figure of eight or bi-directional polar pattern. Rejection at 90 degrees means that a microphone employing this pattern may be set back from the source 1.9 times further than a omni-directional microphone for a given ratio of direct to reverberant sound.

Such a microphone is generally used only for specialist stereo applications. They can be useful for recording two singers simultaneously, one at the back and one at the front.

Cardioid

Another type of microphone capsule employing a type of pressure gradient design produces a unidirectional or cardioid polar pattern. Like the figure of eight capsule the diaphragm is open to the air on both sides but here the air arriving from the rear is delayed by a complex sound path design. The result is a polar pattern in which the microphone is most sensitive to on- axis sound arriving at the front.

This is the most directional pattern and the best choice when rejection of sounds from the back (180o) is required. Off axis rejection means that a microphone employing this pattern may be set back from the source 1.7 times further than a omni-directional microphone for a given ratio of direct to reverberant sound.

Such microphones are favoured when spill from nearby sound sources (other musicians perhaps) needs to be kept to a minimum in live or studio conditions. In common with figure of eight microphones they suffer from the proximity effect.

Super cardioid

This cardioid variation is strongly directional. Off axis rejection means that a microphone employing this pattern may be set back from the source 1.9 times further than an omni-directional microphone for a given ratio of direct to reverberant sound.

Hyper cardioid

This cardioid variation is also strongly directional. Altering the balance of PO and PG creates an asymmetrical figure-of-eight like pattern. Off axis rejection means that a microphone employing this pattern may be set back 2.0 times further than an omni-directional microphone for a given ratio of direct to reverberant sound.

Microphone types

Most microphones employ one of three design types ...

• dynamic
• ribbon
• capacitor (or condenser)

Dynamic (or moving coil)

The robustness of the dynamic microphone makes it ideal for sound reinforcement use. They are both strong and cheap to manufacture. They can tolerate very high SPL's. and require no power supply. They are ideal for recording drums and loud amplified instruments. Also because they tend to accentuated frequencies in the upper-mid or ‘presence’ frequency range they flatter singers.

However they have a limited frequency response often limited to 16kHz. Also their low output makes them insensitive for studio work where it can be difficult to place them close enough to (for example) an acoustic instrument to get a good enough signal.

These microphones tend to offer fixed un-switchable polar patterns, usually omni-directional and cardioid.

Ribbon

The ribbon microphone works on electrical principle similar to the dynamic. They are more delicate but have a flat or smooth frequency response. Because of this they are favoured by classical and acoustic recordists. Early designs could not handle very loud sounds. They are unsuitable for sound reinforcement use.

Recently there has been renewed interest in these designs and many new products have appeared.

Capacitor / condenser

Because of the physical construction of the capsule, these microphones are capable of reproducing a much wider range of frequencies than their dynamic counterparts, typically higher and lower than average human hearing. They are also very efficient giving them the best noise performance and highest sensitivity of all studio microphones. Also these microphones can be made with switchable polar patterns.

However, they are delicate and also require phantom powering, usually from a mixer, audio interface or microphone pre-amp.

Back electret

A variation of the capacitor microphone is the back electret which has its diaphragm polarised during manufacture. This simplifies the electronics and makes them cheaper to produce. Although these microphones are have been said to lose their charge and sensitivity over time, and produce an inferior sound to a true capacitor, this is no longer necessarily true with many excellent models (eg Audio Technica's 4030a) available.

Controls

Microphones, particularly capacitor types, may have on-board switches on their bodies, or on their seperate power supplies, if they have one.

• Low Frequency Roll Off - This allows the user to cut low frequencies (typically at around 75 or 150Hz) by 10dB or so in situations where the proximity effect is a problem.
• Pad - This switch will cut the output of the microphone (typically by 10-20dB).
• Polar Pattern Select - A switch may allow omni-directional, figure of eight and cardioid polar patterns to be selected.
  

Mic techniques

This is a vast subject and one we hope to cover in the furture.

Further reading

You may also wish to read ...

• Recording Vocals
• Compression
• Interconnection
• Phantom power

Glossary of microphone terminology

Ambient sound = Mix of direct and reverberant sound
Axis = A line drawn through and at 90 degrees to the capsule
Capsule = Point of sound incidence in a microphone
Bi-directional = Figure-of-eight polar pattern
Cardioid = Heart shaped polar pattern
Diaphragm = Sound sensitive point of incidence in capsule
Direct sound = That which arrives at the microphone directly from the source
Directivity = Pattern of sensitivity
Figure of eight = Bi-directional polar pattern
cardioid = Asymmetrical figure-of-eight polar pattern
Off axis sound = That which arrives at the diaphragm off axis
Omni-directional = Circular polar pattern
Polar Pattern = Diagram of a microphones output at different angles.
Pressure gradient (PG) = Diaphragm design open to air at back and front
Pressure operation (PO) = Diaphragm design open to the air on one side and enclosed on the other
Proximity effect = The tendency of cardioid and bi-directional microphones to boost low frequencies at close range, typically within a few inches of the capsule
Sensitivity = Electrical output for a given SPL
SPL = Sound pressure level
Super cardioid = Asymmetrical figure-of-eight polar pattern
Transducer = Device for converting one form of physical energy into electricity or vice versa

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